His fall in first 1814 and then 1815 saw the return of the French monarchy, clearly a national return to pre-revolutionary times, even if France could not return to that era. French Revolution - The National Archives Backed by the Commune and elements of the National Guard, on 31 May they attempted to seize power in a coup. Attempts to eliminate his opponents sparked the Reign of Terror, with an estimated 16,000 killed by the time it ended in July 1794. French Revolution Flashcards | Quizlet However, the two entered negotiations over the Louisiana Territory and agreed to the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, an acquisition that substantially increased the size of the United States. [175] An army of 1,000 sans-culottes led by Victor Hugues was sent to Guadeloupe to expel the British and enforce the decree. [209] It also abolished the highly inefficient system of tax farming, whereby private individuals would collect taxes for a hefty fee. In economics, therefore, the nobility declined while middle-class Belgian entrepreneurs flourished because of their inclusion in a large market, paving the way for Belgium's leadership role after 1815 in the Industrial Revolution on the Continent. However, it was clear power had shifted from his court; he was welcomed as 'Louis XVI, father of the French and king of a free people. The current King. Without a majority in the legislature, the Directors relied on the army to enforcing decrees and extract revenue from conquered territories. According to Paul Hanson, "Thousands of men and even many women gained firsthand experience in the political arena: they talked, read, and listened in new ways; they voted; they joined new organisations; and they marched for their political goals. These policies were promoted by the atheist Hbert and opposed by the deist Robespierre, who denounced the campaign and replaced the Cult of Reason with the Cult of the Supreme Being. While loyalties constantly shifted, around 160 of the 749 deputies were Girondists, 200 Montagnards and 389 members of La Plaine. Despite this, the constitutions of 1791 and 1793 denied them political rights and democratic citizenship. [265] Rud states that Alphonse Aulard, in The French Revolution, a Political History, 17891804 (1905), was the first historian to rigorously and critically analyse primary sources in his democratic republican interpretation of the revolution. "The World Revolution of the West: 17631801,", McPhee, Peter. [224], The church was a primary target during the Terror, due to its association with "counter-revolutionary" elements, resulting in the persecution of priests and destruction of churches and religious images throughout France. This was less obvious in Paris, since the formation of the National Guard made it the best policed city in Europe, but growing disorder in the provinces inevitably affected members of the Assembly. [164], In 1789, the most populous French colonies were Saint-Domingue (today Haiti), Martinique, Guadeloupe, the le Bourbon (Runion) and the lede la France. and that there were heirs to the throne. "What's after Political Culture? These characteristics of Jacobin ideology, which contrast with the revolutionary discourse on freedom and equality, have been highlighted by critical historians in the tradition of Tocqueville, notably by Hoel, in Jacobin Ideology. When most people hear the words ''French Revolution,'' they think of the events of the late 18th century, the guillotine, and figures like Marie Antoinette. Parents often brought their children. The French Revolution didn't just take place in 1789. The army recruited former slaves and eventually numbered 11,000, capturing Guadeloupe and other smaller islands. In response to protests by the Commune, the Commission warned "if by your incessant rebellions something befalls the representatives of the nation,Paris will be obliterated". [56] Jean-Jacques Rousseau, considered a philosophical founder of the revolution,[57][58][59][60] wrote it was "manifestly contrary to the law of nature that a handful of people should gorge themselves with superfluities while the hungry multitude goes in want of necessities. In 1792 Christopher Wyvill published Defence of Dr. Price and the Reformers of England, a plea for reform and moderation. The French Revolution (French: Rvolution franaise [evlysj fsz]) was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in November 1799. However, radicals led by Jacques Pierre Brissot prepared a petition demanding his deposition, and on 17 July, an immense crowd gathered in the Champ de Mars to sign. It was celebrated on the left as the people's avenger, for example in the revolutionary song La guillotine permanente,[187] and cursed as the symbol of the Terror by the right. [80] Restricting the franchise to those who paid a minimum amount of tax meant only 4 out of 6million Frenchmen over 25 were able to vote; it largely excluded the sans culottes or urban working class, who increasingly saw the new regime as failing to meet their demands for bread and work. On 5 October, Convention troops led by Napoleon put down a royalist rising in Paris; when the first elections were held two weeks later, over 100 of the 150 new deputies were royalists of some sort. He was married to Marie Antoinette and was executed. Repetition had staled even this most grisly of entertainments, and audiences grew bored. At this point the Jacobins controlled the government; they dissolved the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women, and decreed that all women's clubs and associations were illegal. [51], On 5 October 1789, crowds of women assembled outside the Htel de Ville, urging action to reduce prices and improve bread supplies. The American Revolution brought independence for the people and long term economic success. [155], In late 1791, factions within the Assembly came to see war as a way to unite the country and secure the Revolution by eliminating hostile forces on its borders and establishing its "natural frontiers". They were paid a wage and gained property rights. By far the most important issue to counter-revolutionary women was the passage and the enforcement of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790. The British take Charleston, S.C., capture a large patriot army, and deal the rebels one of their worst defeats of the war. Despite this show of unity, the Assembly was increasingly divided, while external players like the Paris Commune and National Guard competed for power. Rapid population growth and the inability to adequately finance government debt resulted in economic depression, unemployment and high food prices. [43] The breakdown of law and order and frequent attacks on aristocratic property led much of the nobility to flee abroad. These included Edmund Burke's conservative critique Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) and Thomas Paine's response Rights of Man (1791). Emboldened by this, on 22 September the Convention replaced the monarchy with the French First Republic and introduced a new calendar, with 1792 becoming "Year One". Deputies argued over constitutional forms, while civil authority rapidly deteriorated. The Concordat was a compromise that restored some of the Church's traditional roles but not its power, lands or monasteries; the clergy became public officials controlled by Paris, not Rome, while Protestants and Jews gained equal rights. [146] The architect of its end was Sieys, who when asked what he had done during the Terror allegedly answered "I survived". White planters loyal to the republic sent representatives to Paris to convince the Jacobin controlled Convention that those calling for the abolition of slavery were British agents and supporters of Brissot, hoping to disrupt trade. [87] Ironically, Marie Antoinette headed a faction within the court that also favoured war, seeing it as a way to win control of the military, and restore royal authority. The title of Grgoire's report presented to the convention announced its program: Report on the necessity and means of annihilating the patois and universalizing the use of the French language.[153]. Topics related to this ideology, such as slavery and imperialism, are ignored in these two works. [73], Held in the Tuileries Palace under virtual house arrest, Louis XVI was urged by his brother and wife to re-assert his independence by taking refuge with Bouill, who was based at Montmdy with 10,000 soldiers considered loyal to the Crown. [133] Largely designed by Pierre Daunou and Boissy d'Anglas, it established a bicameral legislature, intended to slow down the legislative process, ending the wild swings of policy under the previous unicameral systems. There were about 700,000 slaves in the colonies, of which about 500,000 were in Saint-Domingue. The extent of the brutal repression that followed has been debated by French historians since the mid-19th century. For the next seven years, the hostilities known as the French Revolutionary wars continue between France and various European powers. [70], On 14 July 1790, celebrations were held throughout France commemorating the fall of the Bastille, with participants swearing an oath of fidelity to 'the nation, the law and the king.' In any event, the new constitution was suspended until France was at peace. [205] Olwen Hufton argues some wanted to protect the Church from heretical changes enforced by revolutionaries, viewing themselves as "defenders of faith". Long story short: For much of the. ", Desan, Suzanne. [124], The bloodshed did not end with the death of Robespierre; Southern France saw a wave of revenge killings, directed against alleged Jacobins, Republican officials and Protestants. [216][278] The historiography of the revolution has become more diversified, exploring areas such as cultural histories, regional histories, visual representations, transnational interpretations, and decolonisation. These revised symbols were used to instil in the public a new sense of tradition and reverence for the Enlightenment and the Republic.[183]. The attempted escape had a profound impact on public opinion; since it was clear Louis had been seeking refuge in Austria, the Assembly now demanded oaths of loyalty to the regime, and began preparing for war, while fear of 'spies and traitors' became pervasive. However, France's biggest challenge was servicing the huge public debt inherited from the former regime, which continued to expand due to the war. Camille Desmoulins asked his followers to wear green cockades on 12 July 1789. Reform was gradual and the regime itself carried out agrarian reforms that had the effect of weakening absolutism by creating a class of independent peasant freeholders. [197] On 20 May 1793 women were in the forefront of a crowd demanding "bread and the Constitution of 1793"; when they went unnoticed, they began "sacking shops, seizing grain and kidnapping officials."[198]. 1789 is one of the most significant dates in history - famous for the revolution in France with its cries of 'Libert! [217], The Jacobin cause was picked up by Marxists in the mid-19th century and became an element of communist thought around the world. [204] This sparked a counter-revolutionary movement led by women; while supporting other political and social changes, they opposed the dissolution of the Catholic Church and revolutionary cults like the Cult of the Supreme Being. However, no new explanatory model has gained widespread support. While the convention was evenly divided on the question of his guilt, members were increasingly influenced by radicals centred in the Jacobin clubs and Paris Commune. The Lige Revolution expelled the tyrannical Prince-Bishop and installed a republic. [93], In the September Massacres, between 1,100 and 1,600 prisoners held in Parisian jails were summarily executed, the vast majority of whom were common criminals. They were tolerated by officials because they had widespread support and were a link between elite male physicians and distrustful peasants who needed help. [100], The crisis led to the creation on 6 April 1793 of the Committee of Public Safety, an executive committee accountable to the convention. Prior to 1789, there have been a small number of heavily censored newspapers that needed a royal licence to operate, but the Estates-General created an enormous demand for news, and over 130 newspapers appeared by the end of the year. For their opponents, Enlightenment ideas on equality and democracy provided an intellectual framework for dealing with these issues, while the American Revolution was seen as confirmation of their practical application. Timeline of the Rulers of France From 840 Until 2017 - ThoughtCo [206], Economically, many peasant women refused to sell their goods for assignats because this form of currency was unstable and was backed by the sale of confiscated Church property. [38] On 12 July, the Assembly went into a non-stop session after rumours circulated he was planning to use the Swiss Guards to force it to close. The French Revolution swept away the monarch and killed their king and queen; the Terror which followed the twisting of the revolutionary ideals was in no sense an improvement. Its cultural influence was also under attack, with efforts made to strip civil life of religious elements such as Sundays, holy days, saints, prayers, rituals and ceremonies. The revolutionaries, however, had recognized the existence of only one people, the French people, while there were several nations in the empire. In October, thirty bishops wrote a declaration denouncing the law, further fuelling opposition. Traditional views of the French Revolution often attribute the financial crisis to the costs of the 17781783 Anglo-French War, but modern economic studies show this is only a partial explanation. The Spanish supported insurgent slaves, led by Jean-Franois Papillon and Georges Biassou, in the north of Saint-Domingue. Emboldened by this success, in February 1793 France declared war on the Dutch Republic, Spain and Britain, beginning the War of the First Coalition. [215] As such, the revolution is often seen as the dividing point between the early modern and late modern periods of western history. [145], It has been suggested the Directory did not collapse for economic or military reasons, but because by 1799, many 'preferred the uncertainties of authoritarian rule to the continuing ambiguities of parliamentary politics'. [160] Despite high rates of desertion, this was large enough to manage multiple internal and external threats; for comparison, the combined Prussian-Austrian army was less than 90,000. Martinique remained under British occupation, while colonial landowners in Runion and the les Mascareignes repulsed the republicans. [23], The Estates-General was divided into three parts: the First for members of the clergy; Second for the nobility; and Third for the "commons". The Paris militia, formed on 13 July, adopted a blue and red cockade. Colonial products accounted for about a third of France's exports. Although those numbers have been challenged, Franois Furet concluded it "not only revealed massacre and destruction on an unprecedented scale, but a zeal so violent that it has bestowed as its legacy much of the region's identity. In response to this measure, women in many areas began circulating anti-oath pamphlets and refused to attend masses held by priests who had sworn oaths of loyalty to the Republic. "[229], In the cities, entrepreneurship on a small scale flourished, as restrictive monopolies, privileges, barriers, rules, taxes and guilds gave way. Louis XVI's reign will forever be associated with the outbreak of the French Revolution and the end of Versailles' royal era. [116] To retain the loyalty of the remaining Hbertists, Danton was arrested and executed on 5 April with Camille Desmoulins, after a show trial that arguably did more damage to Robespierre than any other act in this period. In a speech made to the convention on 26 July, he claimed certain members were conspiring against the Republic, an almost certain death sentence if confirmed. It acquired its nickname after being sung in Paris by volunteers from Marseille marching on the capital. [47], Assisted by Thomas Jefferson, then the minister to France, Lafayette prepared a draft constitution known as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which echoed some of the provisions of the Declaration of Independence. [189], Cockades were widely worn by revolutionaries beginning in 1789. [253], The Constitution of Norway of 1814 was inspired by the French Revolution,[254] and was considered to be one of the most liberal and democratic constitutions at the time. On 25 September 1792, Lasource, of Brissot's party, told the convention: "I fear the despotism of Paris, and I do not want those who dispose there of the opinion of the men they mislead to dominate the national convention and the whole France. The French Revolution ( French: Rvolution franaise [evlysj fsz]) was a period of radical political and societal change in France that began with the Estates General of 1789 and ended with the formation of the French Consulate in November 1799. In August 1789, colonial slave owners and merchants formed the rival Club de Massiac to represent their interests. The outcome of the French Revolution, which began in 1789 and lasted for more than a decade, had numerous social, economic, and political effects not just in France but also in Europe and beyond. The song was written and composed in 1792 by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle, and was originally titled "Chant de guerre pour l'Arme du Rhin". The first conscription measure or leve en masse on 24 February sparked riots in Paris and other regional centres. By the mid-nineteenth century, more scholarly histories appeared, written by specialists and based on original documents and a more critical assessment of contemporary accounts. On 29 November, the Assembly passed a decree giving refractory clergy eight days to comply, or face charges of 'conspiracy against the nation', which even Robespierre viewed as too far, too soon. The long-term impact on France was profound, shaping politics, society, religion and ideas, and polarising politics for more than a century. [143], With Royalists apparently on the verge of power, the Republicans staged a coup on 4 September. Its causes are generally agreed to be a combination of social, political and economic factors, which the Ancien Rgime proved unable to manage. [258] The influx of religious migrants also reinvigorated the local Catholic Church, with exiled priests establishing a number of parishes throughout the Canadas.[258]. Deprived of political rights under the Ancien Rgime, the 1791 Constitution classed them as "passive" citizens, leading to demands for social and political equality for women and an end to male domination. It was the complexity as much as the financial burden that caused resentment; complaints from the nobility were not affected by paying significantly less than other classes. The Brunswick Manifesto made it easy to portray Louis as a threat to the Revolution, apparently confirmed when extracts from his personal correspondence were published showed him conspiring with Royalist exiles serving in the Prussian and Austrian armies. [28], The Second Estate elected 291 deputies, representing about 400,000 men and women, who owned about 25% of the land and collected seigneurial dues and rents from their tenants. By December 1790, the Brabant revolution had been crushed and Lige was subdued the following year. "[220][titlemissing], One of the most heated controversies during the Revolution was the status of the Catholic Church. [173], In June, the commissioners in Saint-Domingue freed 10,000 slaves fighting for the republic. Overall, the Revolution did not greatly change the French business system, and probably helped freeze in place the horizons of the small business owner. However, moderate deputies were uneasy at popular demands for universal suffrage, labour unions and cheap bread, and over the winter of 1790 and 1791, they passed a series of measures intended to disarm popular radicalism. Harvest taxes were ended, such as the tithe and seigneurial dues, much to the relief of the peasants. [6] Antiquated farming methods and transportation networks failed to keep up with these numbers. [96] The next few months were taken up with the trial of Citoyen Louis Capet, formerly Louis XVI. "The French Revolution, Peasants, and Capitalism,". There is no evidence of a negative effect of French invasion. "[61], The Revolution caused a massive shift of power from the Catholic Church to the state; although the extent of religious belief has been questioned, elimination of tolerance for religious minorities meant by 1789 being French also meant being Catholic. Initially the debt was financed by sales of confiscated property, but this was hugely inefficient; since few would buy assets that might be repossessed, fiscal stability could only be achieved by continuing the war until French counter-revolutionaries had been defeated. On 17 July, Louis visited Paris accompanied by 100 deputies, where he was greeted by Bailly and accepted a tricolore cockade to loud cheers. 2. Melzer, Sara E., and Leslie W. Rabine, eds. Austria was at war with the Ottomans, as were the Russians, while both were negotiating with Prussia over partitioning Poland. The assignats were withdrawn in 1796 but inflation continued until the introduction of the gold-based Franc germinal in 1803. It wasn't initiated by a rising capitalist bourgeoisie and ended in a victory for conservative property owners, a result which retarded economic development. France permanently became a society of equals under the law. By April 1796, over 500,000 Parisians were reportedly in need of relief, resulting in the May insurrection known as the Conspiracy of the Equals. The election results were cancelled, sixty-three leading royalists deported to French Guiana and new laws passed against migrs, Royalists and ultra-Jacobins. Nearly everyone was Catholic, but the Church was repressed. Messages of support poured in from Paris and other cities; by 27 June, they had been joined by the majority of the First Estate, plus forty-seven members of the Second, and Louis backed down. [27] As a result, half of the 610 deputies elected to the Third Estate in 1789 were lawyers or local officials, nearly a third businessmen, while fifty-one were wealthy land owners. [33], The Estates-General convened in the Menus-Plaisirs du Roi on 5 May 1789, near the Palace of Versailles rather than in Paris; the choice of location was interpreted as an attempt to control their debates. [72], The traditional force for preserving law and order was the army, which was increasingly divided between officers, who largely came from the nobility, and ordinary soldiers. Although only 20% were committed Royalists, many centrists supported the restoration of the exiled Louis XVIII of France in the belief this would end the War of the First Coalition with Britain and Austria. After a century of royal residency the Versailles legend came to an end, and Paris once again became the centre of the kingdom. Regarding the last point, King Louis XVI's record was in doubt early in his reign, as the lack of an heir in the first seven . Tallien, in August 1794, to explain the appearance of the regime of terror, said that it presumed a power that was at once "arbitrary", "absolute" and "endless": "The system of terror presupposes not only [] arbitrary and absolute power, but also endless power"[152]. The 1793 Constitution was suspended indefinitely in October. De Lisle was instructed to 'produce a hymn which conveys to the soul of the people the enthusiasm which it (the music) suggests. [91], In late August, elections were held for the National Convention; voter restrictions meant those cast fell to 3.3million, versus 4million in 1791, while intimidation was widespread. As was customary, each Estate assembled in separate rooms, whose furnishings and opening ceremonies deliberately emphasised the superiority of the First and Second Estates. "La Marseillaise" (French pronunciation:[la masjz]) became the national anthem of France. This led to the "Constitutional Act 1791", which split the Province into two separate colonies, each with its own electoral assembly, the predominantly French-speaking Lower Canada and predominantly English-speaking Upper Canada. Ultimately these attempts not only failed but aroused a furious reaction among the pious; opposition to these changes was a key factor behind the revolt in the Vende. [32] Abb Sieys, a political theorist and priest elected to the Third Estate, argued it should take precedence over the other two as it represented 95% of the population. They suggest that "areas that were occupied by the French and that underwent radical institutional reform experienced more rapid urbanization and economic growth, especially after 1850. However, the monarchy did not last long, rendering this a difficult endpoint for the revolution, as others followed soon. They included Paul Barras, later chief executive of the French Directory, and Joseph Fouch, director of the killings in Lyon who served as Minister of Police under the Directory, the Consulate and Empire. [228] Cobban argues the Revolution bequeathed to the nation "a ruling class of landowners. [202], Counter-revolutionary women resisted what they saw as the increasing intrusion of the state into their lives. This meant that although wages increased by 22% between 1770 and 1790, food prices rose by 65%,[7] which many blamed on government failure to prevent profiteering. It sparked the wave of revolutions of 1848 . Best Known For: Louis XVI was the last king of France (1774-92) in the line of Bourbon monarchs preceding the French Revolution of 1789. [240][241] William Coxe opposed Price's premise that one's country is principles and people, not the State itself. [269][270] Albert Soboul, also writing in the Marxist-Republican tradition, published a major study of the sans-culottes in 1958. [162] In October 1797, a series of defeats by Bonaparte in Italy led Austria to agree to the Treaty of Campo Formio, in which they formally ceded the Netherlands and recognised the Cisalpine Republic. The Council of 500 was responsible for drafting legislation, which was reviewed and approved by the Council of Ancients, an upper house containing 250 men over the age of 40. [121] The Law of 22 Prairial was repealed, any surviving Girondists reinstated as deputies, and the Jacobin Club was closed and banned. The revolution swayed the socio-economic and political life of France and affected the rest of the world. [199], Olympe de Gouges wrote a number of plays, short stories, and novels. [180], Newspapers were read aloud in taverns and clubs, and circulated hand to hand. [275] He also stated that Jacobin-Marxist interpretations of the revolution harboured a totalitarian tendency,[276] but conceded that they had increased the understanding of the role of peasants and the urban masses in the revolution. Tackett, Timothy, "The French Revolution and religion to 1794," and Suzanne Desan, "The French Revolution and religion, 17951815," in Stewart J. [11], The problem lay in the assessment and collection of the taxes used to fund government expenditure. Under the pressure of events, splits appeared within the Montagnard faction, with violent disagreements between radical Hbertists and moderates led by Danton. Cockades with various colour schemes were used during the storming of the Bastille on 14 July. A new decree stated retracting this oath, making war upon the nation, or permitting anyone to do so in his name would be considered abdication. [255], Coverage of the Revolution in the then Province of Quebec took place against the background of an ongoing campaign for constitutional reform by Loyalist emigrants from the United States. [127] This was accompanied by military success; in January 1795, French forces helped the Dutch Patriots set up the Batavian Republic, securing their northern border. [84] The second was non-juring priests, whose opposition to the Civil Constitution led to a state of near civil war in southern France, which Bernave tried to defuse by relaxing the more punitive provisions. Although the victors of Thermidor asserted control over the Commune by executing their leaders, some of those closely involved in the "Terror" retained their positions. Her political focus was not specifically on women or their liberation. [166][167], People of colour also faced social and legal discrimination in mainland France and its colonies, including a bar on their access to professions such as law, medicine and pharmacy. He and Jean-Paul Marat gained increasing support for opposing the criteria for 'active citizens', which had disenfranchised much of the Parisian proletariat. The new government enforced new reforms, incorporating the region into France itself. The revolt failed and Og was killed. The French Revolution Though the queen had supported Jacques Necker 's return to power at the end of August 1788 and had approved of the concession of double representation to the Third Estate, her unpopularity was at its height when the Estates-General convened at Versailles in May 1789.

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